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<\/center><\/p>\nAbstract: <\/h2>\n
<\/b><\/p>\n Indian music; sacred sound; Hinduism; K\u012brtan; Bhajan; N\u0101da-Brahman; Dhrupad; Khayal; Bhakti; Rasa; Sang\u012bta; R\u0101ga; T\u0101la<\/p><\/div>\n
\n chanting of Sanskrit Mantras and hymns from the Vedas formed the core of ancient fire sacrifices. The Upanishads articulated OM as \u015aabda-Brahman, the Sound-Absolute that became the object of meditation in Yoga. First described by Bharata in
\n the N\u0101tya-\u015a\u0101stra<\/span> as a sacred art with reference to Rasa (emotional states), ancient music or Sang\u012bta was a vehicle of liberation (Mok\u1e63a) founded in the worship of deities such as Brahm\u0101, Vishnu, \u015aiva, and Goddess
\n Sarasvat\u012b. Medieval Tantra and music texts introduced the concept of N\u0101da-Brahman as the source of sacred music that was understood in terms of R\u0101gas, melodic formulas, and T\u0101las, rhythms, forming the basis of Indian music today. Nearly all
\n genres of Indian music, whether the classical Dhrupad and Khayal, or the devotional Bhajan and K\u012brtan, share a common theoretical and practical understanding, and are bound together in a mystical spirituality based on the experience of sacred
\n sound. Drawing upon ancient and medieval texts and Bhakti traditions, this article describes how music enables Hindu religious experience in fundamental ways. By citing several examples from the modern Hindustani classical vocal tradition
\n of Khayal, including text and audio\/video weblinks, it is revealed how the classical songs contain the wisdom of Hinduism and provide a deeper appreciation of the many musical styles that currently permeate the Hindu and Yoga landscapes of
\n the West.<\/div>\n<\/section>\n\n
\n and bliss. The highest aim of our music is to reveal the essence of the universe it reflects, and the R\u0101gas are among the means by which this essence can be apprehended. Thus, through music, one can reach God. <\/div>\n
\n classical music. Due to the relaxation of American immigration rules in 1965, an infusion of Indian religious teachers and musicians paved the way for the adoption of Hinduism by Americans, as well as the formal instruction in Indian music on
\n instruments such as the Sitar and Tabla. As a result, scholars and practitioners began the careful study of ancient Sanskrit texts that revealed the close links between Hindu religious thought and Indian music. From Vedic chant to the Upanishads,
\n from Yoga philosophy to Tantric rituals, from theistic worship to the Bhakti movements, from classical Dhrupad and Khayal songs in R\u0101gas (melodic patterns) and T\u0101las (rhythms) to lighter forms of Bhajan and K\u012brtan, many seemingly disparate sectors
\n of Indian tradition are found to be bound together in a mystical spirituality grounded in the experience of sacred sound. This essay first outlines the theoretical roots of sacred sound in India, and then explains the connections between these
\n and sacred music, aesthetics, the traditions of devotion, and finally to the modern Hindustani classical tradition. The presentation demonstrates a continuity between the ancient and modern traditions by means of several examples of classical
\n vocal compositions known as Khayal, including text and audio\/video weblinks. The result is a deeper appreciation of the underlying spiritual unity of Indian music as well as a more accurate understanding of the variety of classical and devotional
\n songs that permeate the Hindu and Yoga landscapes of the West. <\/div>\n
\n one of the first Yoga teachers to settle in America, Paramahansa Yog\u0101nanda (1893\u20131952), in his bestselling work, Autobiography of a Yogi: The Classic Story of One of India\u2019s Greatest Spiritual Thinkers<\/span> (Yog\u0101nanda [1946] 2016, p. 131<\/a>), suggested an alliance between the syllable OM (AUM) and the music or sound that can be heard through faculties taught in Yoga: \u201cThe ancient Rishis discovered these laws of sound alliance
\n between nature and man. Because nature is an objectification of AUM, the Primal Sound or Vibratory Word, man can obtain control over all natural manifestations through the use of certain mantras or chants. The deeper aim of the early Rishi-musicians
\n was to blend the singer with the Cosmic Song which can be heard through awakening of man\u2019s occult spinal centers.\u201d<\/div>\n
\n Swami Satchid\u0101nanda, Swami Chid\u0101nanda, and Swami N\u0101dabrahm\u0101nanda. In his seminal book, Music as Yoga<\/span> (\u015aiv\u0101nanda 1956, pp. 6\u20137<\/a>), Sivananda explained
\n the relation between Yoga and music by means of OM: \u201cWhat distinguished Indian music\u2026It was always held to be but an extension and outward symbolization of the Omnipresent Pra\u1e47ava Sound\u2014OM\u2014and utilized only for purposes of God attainment\u2014a feature
\n it has retained to the present-day, as will be evident from the fact that, up to the end of the last century, the subject of musical compositions has rarely been anything but God and his glories.\u201d In terms of Yoga terminology, he identifies the
\n physical Yoga with music (ibid., p. 18): \u201cMusic is a synthesis of the various Yogas or paths to God-realization. Music itself is Hatha Yoga Sadhana.\u201d These provocative statements beckon us to look further by exploring the ancient Sanskrit sources
\n on Indian music and the spirituality of Hindu religion. Since vocal music is the root of all music, this essay will focus primarily on the vocal classical tradition. <\/div>\n 1. Sacred Sound: OM and N\u0101da-Brahman <\/h2>\n
\n From the singing of the ancient Vedic hymns to the devotional chants and songs of modern-day devotees, Indian music is deeply grounded in the theological principles of sacred sound as contained in Hindu scriptures. The Vedas and Upanishads
\n (ca. 2000\u20131000 BCE) contain information about the practice of chant and vocal utterance in relation to fire sacrifices to the gods. These ancient Indo-\u0100ryan texts are believed to embody the eternal primeval sound that generated the universe,
\n symbolized by the syllable OM, the power of which is manifest through oral chant. Recent research on the origins and history of the syllable OM has revealed that OM was closely associated with tonal chant and music from the beginning of its
\n use.in ancient India. According to Gerety<\/a> (2015, p. 461<\/a>), \u201cThe bottom line is that the first thousand years of
\n OM constitute a S\u0101mavedic movement within the broader religious culture of Vedism. Amidst concurrent contributions by experts from the other Vedas, it was the singer-theologians of first the Jaimin\u012bya, and then the Kauthuma, branches of S\u0101ma-Veda
\n who did the most to foster OM\u2019s emergence. In my view, this is the single most important finding of the present study: that the history of the sacred syllable resounds with music and song.\u201d Additionally, Wilke and Moebus <\/a> (2011<\/a>) explores the linguistic aspects of sound as communication in the context of Sanskritic culture. All this research helps us to understand
\n the function of OM and why the chanting of OM is almost always tonal, unless muttered in near-silence. That is, OM is normally executed in a kind of monotone on the tonic note of a scale. This method is still the foundation of Hindu worship
\n and the basis for opening classical vocal music performances. <\/div>\n
\n Veda were chanted in roughly three distinct musical tones or accents, which were expanded to seven notes in the singing of hymns (S\u0101mans) from the S\u0101ma Veda (ca. 1000 BCE). Utilized during elaborate sacrifices involving the offering of Soma
\n juice, the S\u0101ma Veda hymns comprise the earliest hymnal in world religion. They were believed to possess supernatural powers capable of petitioning and supporting the deities that controlled the forces of the universe, indicating to us that
\n music was mysteriously linked to the divine at this early stage of Hindu ritual practice. Thite<\/a> (1997, p. 68<\/a>)
\n described the attractive and powerful nature of the S\u0101ma Veda hymns: “the poet-singers call, invoke, and invite the gods with the help of musical elements. In so doing they seem to be aware of the magnetic power of music and therefore they
\n seem to be using that power in calling the gods.” The connections between chant, music, and the gods in Vedic culture formed the basis of both the earliest classical music known as Gandharva Sang\u012bta, and the later devotional music or Bhakti
\n Sangit which formed part of the Bhakti movements. And while music in India formed part of both public worship and drama, it was viewed not only as entertainment, but as a vehicle toward liberation (Mok\u1e63a) and immortality.<\/div>\n
\n the concepts of \u015aabda-Brahman and especially N\u0101da-Brahman (\u201cSacred sound as God\u201d), comprising N\u0101da-\u015aakti (sound energy) and Brahman (divine Absolute). Brahman, first articulated in the Upanishads, is also conceived in two ways: Nirgu\u1e47a (without
\n attributes), and Sagu\u1e47a (with attributes). The followers of Nirgu\u1e47a-Brahman worship the Absolute beyond all material qualities, which can be approached without the use or need of icons or deities. The followers of Sagu\u1e47a-Brahman, on the other
\n hand, prefer the use of images and statues as more effective means of meditation on the divine. The developing notion of N\u0101da-Brahman (sacred sound) is described in the \u0100gamas and Tantras as well as in Yoga commentaries and musicological texts
\n such as the Sang\u012bta-Ratn\u0101kara<\/span>, encompassing both Nirgu\u1e47a and Sagu\u1e47a approaches to the Absolute. The term N\u0101da-Brahman refers to sacred sound that may be either unmanifest (An\u0101hata, \u201cunstruck,\u201d existing in the
\n divine realm) or manifest (\u0100hata, \u201cstruck,\u201d existing in the human realm, i.e., music). Although both perspectives of Nirgu\u1e47a and Sagu\u1e47a are discoverable in the Upanishads, the underlying philosophy is shared, namely, that the material world
\n is temporary and illusory, and one should attempt to transgress the cycle of rebirth known as Sams\u0101ra by decreasing material attachment to family, friends, and possessions. This philosophy is also conveyed in the lyrics of classical songs
\n known as Khayal. <\/div>\n
\n Supreme Being contains the elemental of primal sound and can be approached in its deity form through sound and music. Regarding the Sagu\u1e47a aspect, Hopkins<\/a> (1971, p. 20<\/a>) has described how the names and epithets of deities were the sonic counterparts to the visual dimensions: “Sanskrit words were not just arbitrary labels assigned to phenomena; they were the sound
\n forms of objects, actions, and attributes, related to the corresponding reality in the same way as visual forms, and different only in being perceived by the ear and not by the eye.\u201d True meditation on an icon thus involves both sound and
\n image, leading us to the important role of music in Hindu religious experience. Moreover, the name of a deity was understood to contain all the spiritual potencies of the deity. Hence the well-known axiom, \u201cMantra (name) and Devat\u0101 (deity)
\n are the same,\u201d that is affirmed throughout the Hindu tradition, lending credence to N\u0101m-K\u012brtan, the chanting of divine names.<\/div>\n<\/section>\n 2. Sacred Music: Sang\u012bta<\/h2>\n
\n the creator of the universe, fashioned Indian music out of the ingredients of the S\u0101ma Veda and plays the hand cymbals. Vishnu the Preserver sounds the conch shell and plays the flute in the form of the incarnation known as Krishna. \u015aiva as
\n Na\u1e6dar\u0101ja plays the Damaru drum during the dance of cosmic dissolution. Sangita has three divisions: vocal, instrumental, and dance.<\/div>\n
\n S\u0101ma Veda hymns and considered a replica of the music performed and enjoyed in Lord Indra\u2019s heavenly court. Brought down to earth by the sage N\u0101rada, this essentially vocal music included instruments such as the Vina, flutes, drums, and cymbals.
\n The oldest surviving texts of Gandharva Sang\u012bta, the N\u0101\u1e6dya-\u015a\u0101stra<\/span> by Bharata Muni and the Dattilam<\/span> by Dattila (ca. 400\u2013200 BCE), provide glimpses of this music as it was performed
\n in sacred dramas, festivals, courtly ceremonies, and temple rituals in honor of the emerging great gods and goddesses such as \u015aiva, Vishnu, Brahm\u0101, and Gane\u1e63a. Gandharva Sang\u012bta was linked to the practice of P\u016bj\u0101 (worship of images) which
\n gradually replaced the fire sacrifice as the center of Hindu religious activity. <\/div>\n
\n attentiveness.\u201d This statement is basically the same as that found in N\u0101\u1e6dya-\u015a\u0101stra<\/span> (28.8). While Vedic chants and S\u0101ma Veda hymns were punctuated by metrical divisions that generated distinct units of unseen
\n merit that accrued to the priest or sacrificer, similar metrical units were marked by the playing of hand cymbals and drums in Gandharva music. The ancient theorists held that the musicians and audience earned Mok\u1e63a through accumulation of
\n unseen merit through the marking of ritual (musical) time in the form of T\u0101la. The significance of rhythm or T\u0101la can thus be traced to the earliest texts on music. Liberation within the theistic and devotional traditions was also dependent
\n on the emotion feelings of love that the practitioners held in terms of the developing personal relationship with their deity, including the proper Rasa sentiments. <\/div>\n<\/section>\n 3. Aesthetics of Rasa<\/h2>\n
\n the musical arts. The Upanishads describe Brahman (Absolute or God) as raso vai sah<\/span>, full of the essence of aesthetic delight or Rasa (Taittir\u012bya Upanishad<\/span> 2.7.1). The association
\n between Rasa and music began to appear in the earliest Sanskrit musical treatises and texts on P\u016bj\u0101 and the dramatic arts. Bharata Muni, in N\u0101tya-\u015a\u0101stra,<\/span> was the first to outline the basic features of Indian
\n music as well as the various aesthetic experiences (Rasas) associated with drama and the worship of icons. Rasas are the artistic or aesthetic expressions of emotional experiences that are believed to be universal traits of humanity, such
\n as love, compassion, and heroism. In the N\u0101\u1e6dya-\u015a\u0101stra<\/span> (6.15, 39\u201345), Bharata Muni presents the original eight Rasas: \u015aring\u0101ra\u2014erotic, H\u0101sya\u2014comic, Karu\u1e47\u0101\u2014compassion, Raudra\u2014terror, V\u012bra\u2014heroic, Bhay\u0101naka\u2014fear,
\n B\u012bbhatsa\u2014disgust, and Adbhuta\u2014wonder (Rangacharya 2003, pp. 54\u201356<\/a>). The N\u0101\u1e6dya-\u015a\u0101stra<\/span> (19.38-40) ties the eight Rasas with the seven individual
\n notes of the musical scale known for the first time as Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni (cf. do re mi fa so la ti): erotic\u2014Pa (fifth), comic\u2014Ma (fourth), compassion\u2014Ga (third) and Ni (seventh), disgust and fear\u2014Dha (sixth), heroic, terror, and wonder\u2014Sa
\n (tonic) and Re (second) (Rangacharya 2003, pp. 142\u201343<\/a>). <\/div>\n
\n musical scales are known as Gr\u0101mas, of which there were three. Out of the notes of the Gr\u0101mas, sixteen J\u0101tis or modes were formed which included some basic defining characteristics, such as notes of emphasis, phrase-like patterns, and so forth.
\n The early notion of J\u0101ti developed into the R\u0101ga by the eighth century CE, as known from the famous text, Brihadde\u015b\u012b<\/span>, by Matanga. This text also connected the R\u0101ga with sacred sound as N\u0101da-Brahman. The R\u0101ga,
\n as a special set of notes, was more distinct as a melodic pattern than the J\u0101ti, and had unique structural characteristics, emotional content (Rasa), and methods of performance. All R\u0101gas comprise ascending and descending patterns of from
\n five to seven notes derived from the seven-note scale above, with the additional lowering or raising of specific notes to enlarge the gamut. The R\u0101ga quickly became the preferred form of expression for the classical and devotional songs coming
\n out of the medieval Bhakti movements. N\u0101nyadeva, in his twelfth-century Bharata-bh\u0101shya<\/span>, developed the relation between Rasas and R\u0101gas such that these associations were expressed in poetic form known Dhy\u0101na-Mantras,
\n and in the paintings (R\u0101gam\u0101l\u0101) that further linked them with a season, time of day, and gender (male R\u0101ga and female R\u0101gin\u012b). <\/div>\n
\n was described as having two types: union (sambhoga) and separation (vipralambha). The first celebrates the joy and exhilaration of lovers meeting, the second endures the pangs of separation, including anxiety, yearning, and some jealousy.
\n The universal human quality (sth\u0101yi-bh\u0101va) of \u015aring\u0101ra is romantic passion (rat\u012b). Associated with white, pure, bright, beautiful and elegant attire, and the fullness of youth, \u015aring\u0101ra Rasa was also expressly affiliated with the god Vishnu,
\n whose incarnation of Krishna became the nexus of divine love\u2013play in later poetry and music. A ninth Rasa, \u015a\u0101nta Rasa (peace) was added by the Kashmiri philosopher Abhinavagupta in the tenth century CE. \u015a\u0101nta Rasa was the appropriate musical
\n aesthetic in response to the formless nature of the divine, or Nirgu\u1e47a-Brahman, as endorsed by the non-dualist school of Advaita Vedanta propounded in Kashmiri \u015aaivism. \u015aring\u0101ra Rasa, however, was believed to transcend the formless or impersonal
\n conception and was more suitable for the Sagu\u1e47a approach to the divine. <\/div>\n<\/section>\n 4. Bhakti and Music: K\u012brtan and Bhajan<\/h2>\n
\n Tamil, Telugu, and Kannada. Many new styles of regional devotional music were duly formalized to accompany liturgies in the temples of medieval times. These styles followed a simple aesthetic reflecting the perspective of music as an offering
\n as well as a means toward communion with a chosen deity. In the evolving personal theism, Brahman was conceived as the supreme personal deity, whether Vishnu, \u015aiva, or \u015aakti, and believed to be the fountainhead of all Rasa (aesthetic pleasure
\n or taste). The emotional experience of love and devotion produced by musicians in the minds of the listeners was linked to the divine by virtue of it being a part of the Bhakti tradition. <\/div>\n
\n and practitioners of the Sagu\u1e47a traditions and was believed to encompass and transform all the other Rasas. In the N\u0101rada-Bhakti-S\u016btra<\/span> (ca. 100 BCE\u2013400 CE) and the Bh\u0101gavata-Pur\u0101\u1e47a<\/span> (ninth century CE), five types of devotional love are described, namely, \u015a\u0101nta (meditational), D\u0101sya (servitude), S\u0101khya (friendship), V\u0101tsalya (parental), K\u0101nt\u0101 (conjugal), with the highest being the latter as love between man and woman,
\n which came to symbolize the love between the human and the divine. The Bh\u0101gavata-Pur\u0101\u1e47a<\/span> outlined the path of devotion or Bhakti M\u0101rga as being superior to the path of knowledge (J\u00f1\u0101na M\u0101rga) and action (Karma
\n M\u0101rga). Moreover, the Bhagavad-G\u012bt\u0101<\/span> and the Bh\u0101gavata-Pur\u0101\u1e47a<\/span> stressed that Bhakti was the culmination of all religious experiences and included the other paths in the truest
\n sense. Under the influence of these texts and medieval scholars of Rasa such as Bhoja of Rajasthan (eleventh century), R\u016bpa Goswami held that \u015aring\u0101ra, within the locus of Bhakti Rasa, was synonymous with the selfless love of the Gop\u012bs (handmaidens)
\n for Krishna, an ecstatic affection known as Krishna-rat\u012b or Prem\u0101 (highest love). As part of temple worship, \u015aring\u0101ra came to refer to the early morning decoration of the deities of R\u0101dh\u0101 and Krishna as they are \u2018dressed for conjugal love.\u2019\n <\/div>\n
\n music\u201d), much of which followed the classical form of R\u0101ga (melodic pattern) and T\u0101la (rhythmic cycle) and contained lyrics expressive of love and devotion toward a chosen deity. Unlike Vedic chant and S\u0101ma Veda hymns, which are rendered in
\n Sanskrit, Bhakti Sang\u012bt is primarily sung in vernacular dialects such as Hindi and Braj Bh\u0101\u1e63\u0101 in the North, and Tamil, Telugu, and Kannada in the South. Various types of Bhakti Sang\u012bt came to be referred to as either K\u012brtan or Bhajan. <\/div>\n
\n Islamic songs of praise. The term Bhajan suggests a more interactive nature, since it shares with the word Bhakti and Bhagav\u0101n (\u2018Lord\u2019) the common Sanskrit root bhaj<\/span>, \u201cto share, to partake of\u201d (as in a rite).
\n Bhagav\u0101n means the Lord who possesses bhaga<\/span>, good fortune, opulence. K\u012brtan and Bhajan, as terms for religious or devotional music apart from Vedic chant and the purely classical traditions, are directly linked
\n to the growing Bhakti movements, and are performed so that God, \u2018Bhagav\u0101n,\u2019 is praised, worshipped, or appealed to in a mutual exchange of Bhakti. An interesting comparative study of Bhajan, Kirtan, and psalm is found in Muck<\/a> (2001<\/a>).<\/div>\n
\n to any act of worship or loving devotion, including music. The Bh\u0101gavata-Pur\u0101\u1e47a<\/span> (6th to 9th century CE) endorses both K\u012brtan and G\u012bt\u012b (song) as near-statutory practices within P\u016bj\u0101. K\u012brtan and P\u016bj\u0101 are inextricably
\n linked in Bh\u0101gavata-Pur\u0101\u1e47a<\/span> 11.19.20. In Bh\u0101gavata-Pur\u0101\u1e47a<\/span> 11.11.36, song, dance, and instrumental music are mentioned as equal components of the divine service in the temple. K\u012brtan
\n is also understood to be expressed musically in the form of song, represented here with the Sanskrit term gayan<\/span> (\u201csinging\u201d) in Bh\u0101gavata-Pur\u0101\u1e47a<\/span> 11.11.23. Singing in vernacular languages
\n is an equally effective vehicle according to Bh\u0101gavata-Pur\u0101\u1e47a<\/span> 11.27.45, leading to the widespread composition of vernacular songs in various regions of India. <\/div>\n
\n these are sometimes punctuated by short sermons or meditative recitations of Sanskrit verses from scripture. In closing, a special ceremony called \u0100rati is conducted as part of the P\u016bj\u0101 (\u201cworship service\u201d) which includes offerings of food, flowers,
\n incense and lamps, and blowing of conches. The distribution of food, flowers, lamp wicks, and holy water concludes the session. <\/div>\n
\n up-tempo, such as Keherva which has eight beats roughly corresponding to a Western cut time in 4\/4. Another common rhythm is Dadra, a six-beat T\u0101la corresponding to Western 3\/4 or 6\/8 time. An example of a Bhajan by the poet S\u016br D\u0101s in Hindi is found
\n in both textual and audio version in Beck<\/a> (2006, p. 134<\/a>). Set in the popular rhythm of Keherva, it nonetheless reflects
\n the ancient philosophical view of the Bhagavad-G\u012bt\u0101<\/span>, whereby attachment to material things can be only relieved by surrender and devotion to God. In the penultimate lyric, S\u016br D\u0101s says (in translation), \u201cDue to over-attachment
\n for wife, children and wealth I have lost all of my clear intelligence. Sur Das implores, \u201cLord, please relieve me of this great load, for now my ship (this body) has set sail.\u201d<\/div>\n
\n serves as a means of spiritual release. Primarily a congregational practice, N\u0101m-K\u012brtan enables ordinary persons a sense of musical elation. Examples of three chants are:<\/p>\n\n
\n that has continued in India by pious Hindus and more recently by members of the Hare Krishna Movement (ISKCON). It is a petition to R\u0101dh\u0101 (\u201cHar\u0101\u201d), the energy of Krishna, and to Krishna who is also full of pleasure (\u201cR\u0101ma\u201d).<\/div>\n<\/dd>\n
\n the temple facing or adjacent to a deity or picture is designated for music. Reading from an anthology of verses, lead singers often accompany themselves on a harmonium, a floor version of the upright, portable reed organ used by nineteenth-century
\n Christian missionaries. The metal reed used in the harmonium, however, is Asiatic in origin. Linked to mouth organs used in the subcontinent, it is the basis for the western harmonica and accordion. Group members generally repeat the lines in unison
\n after the leader. However, the leader may also sing solo or with occasional refrains sung by the group. Bhajan and K\u012brtan musical ensembles, like almost all types of Indian music, include musical instruments. Percussion instruments, membranophones
\n and idiophones, include pairs of hand cymbals called Kartal or Jh\u0101njh, drums such as the Tabla, Pakh\u0101vaj, Dholak or Khol, and occasionally bells, clappers or tambourines. A background drone may be provided by a Tanpura, if not by the harmonium or
\n a \u015aruti Box, a small pumped instrument used in Carnatic music. <\/div>\n<\/section>\n 5. Dhrupad and Temple Music <\/h2>\n
\n in Mathur\u0101, Vrind\u0101van, Braj, Gwalior, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Uttar Pradesh. For many years in the North, the musical style of Dhrupad was the principal classical vehicle for vernacular Bhakti lyrics, and was rendered in a slow, four-section
\n format using the pure form of a R\u0101ga, along with the strict rhythms of mainly Cautal (twelve beats) or Dham\u0101r (fourteen beats). Dhrupad spread as a classical genre wherever it was patronized by the ruling elite, both in temples and ruling Hindu
\n and Mughal courts. Important devotional styles that are related to Dhrupad are Havel\u012b Sang\u012bt and Sam\u0101j G\u0101yan, both originating in Vaishnava temples in the region of Braj. For specialized studies of Dhrupad, see Srivastava<\/a> (1980<\/a>) and Sanyal and Widdess<\/a> (2004<\/a>).<\/div>\n
\n the form of Sagu\u1e47a worship lends great importance to the image of the deity as an object of devotion and veneration. As such, many songs include lyrics that describe a god or deity as part of the meditation process of the singer and listener in
\n visualizing the divine. The lyrics of these compositions, whether in Sanskrit or vernacular, generate a vivid description of the gods and goddesses in what may be termed a verbal icon. Meditation on this \u201cverbal icon\u201d enables the aspirant to effectively
\n focus his or her mind on the form and activities of the chosen deity. As a primary Bhakti text, the Bhagavad-G\u012bt\u0101<\/span> (8.6) has explained that the image in one\u2019s mind at the time of death affects one\u2019s future birth.
\n Hence the musical experience of devotional love is not abstract but reconciled with the establishment of an image in the mind of the practitioner for purposes of gaining access to a soteriological outcome. <\/div>\n
\n also served the same purpose. Expressing veneration for three Hindu deities, Sarasvat\u012b, \u015aiva, and Krishna, each poem utilizes key words and phrases which invoke the visual image of the form of the deity to facilitate meditation. The songs, part
\n of oral tradition and thus unpublished, are composed in the Braj Bh\u0101\u1e63\u0101 dialect of Hindi and translated by the author. The first composition is directed toward Sarasvat\u012b, the Goddess of Learning and Music. The epithets and verbal descriptions of
\n the Goddess serve to create an image in the mind for meditation:<\/div>\n
\n His body is smeared with divine ashes (lepa anga vibhu tana). <\/div>\n
\n founded by saint Vallabha in the early sixteenth century, and the R\u0101dh\u0101vallabha Samprad\u0101ya founded in the mid-sixteenth century by saint Hita Harivam\u015ba. <\/div>\n
\n established in Braj, where a group of eight singer-saints (A\u1e63\u1e6dach\u0101p) including the famous poet S\u016br D\u0101s performed their musical worship of Krishna, Havel\u012b Sang\u012bt is now widely practiced in Rajasthan and Gujarat. The R\u0101gas that were sung as early
\n as the sixteenth century by the Vaishnava movements in Vrind\u0101van and are still sung in roughly the same manner today, are known to modern musicians through the manuscripts of hymnals that have come down to us over the centuries. These R\u0101gas reveal
\n to us the range of devotional feelings and aesthetic Rasas that were common during worship services to Krishna. Many R\u0101gas still in use are mentioned in the hymnals of the Pu\u1e63\u1e6di M\u0101rg tradition, including Bhairav, Ramkali, Vilaval, Bibhas, Lalit,
\n Malkauns, Todi, Malar, Vasant Purvi, Kalyan, Bihag, and Kafi. Unlike classical Dhrupad, Havel\u012b Sang\u012bt uses cymbals. As in Dhrupad, there are many compositions in Cautal of twelve beats and Dham\u0101r of fourteen beats. <\/div>\n
\n on the intimate love-play of R\u0101dh\u0101 and Krishna, this sect gradually built up a unique repertoire of poetry that is saturated with \u015aring\u0101ra Rasa, culminating in a massive three-volume hymnal, \u015ar\u012b \u015ar\u012b R\u0101dh\u0101vallabhaj\u012b k\u0101 Var\u1e63otsava<\/span>.
\n Set to various R\u0101gas, most of its poems describe the union and separation of Krishna and his beloved R\u0101dh\u0101 and have been sung to musical accompaniment for nearly five-hundred years in the R\u0101dh\u0101vallabha temples. Within the R\u0101dh\u0101vallabha Samprad\u0101aya,
\n there are several R\u0101gas that are still prevalent, such as Sarang, Kanhara, Vilaval, Kalyan, Bhupali, Bibhas, Malhar, Kedar, and Todi. One hundred and eight songs from the above hymnal are preserved in text and audio format in Beck<\/a> (2011<\/a>). Sam\u0101j G\u0101yan is also practiced by members of the Nimb\u0101rka and the Harid\u0101s\u012b samprad\u0101yas, two other Vaishnava traditions in the Braj area
\n that pursue the musical interpretations of the relations between R\u0101dh\u0101 and Krishna. Additional information on the Vaishnava genres is found in Thielemann<\/a> (1996<\/a>, 1999<\/a>, 2000<\/a>). <\/div>\n<\/section>\n 6. Classical Music of Khayal<\/h2>\n
\n music genre known as Khayal that flourished in the northern Hindu and Muslim courts. Many Muslim musicians became proficient in Khayal and contributed greatly to its repertoire and success. By the nineteenth century, Khayal virtually replaced
\n Dhrupad as the predominant form of Hindustani vocal music, and by the twentieth century, it had shifted from the court to the concert arena. While expanding in new creative directions, Khayal, also sung in the vernacular Braj Bh\u0101\u1e63\u0101 dialect, nonetheless
\n retained an affinity with the substance of the Dhrupad songs. A Khayal song is known as a \u2018bandish,\u2019 a carefully constructed musical composition with a balance of note, beat, and word that creates an image or idea in the mind that is greater than
\n the sum of the individual parts. The modern Khayal performance on the concert stage has become an opportunity for musical virtuosity and showmanship with greater emphasis on creativity and free expression. Audiences of today expect to be overwhelmed
\n by a dazzling display of stylistic elements: shimmering cascades of T\u0101nas (note patterns comprising vowels), M\u016brk\u012bs (grace notes), Khu\u1e6dk\u0101s (rapid turns of phrases), speedy Sargams (Sa Re Ga Ma, etc.), rhythmic interchanges with the Tabla including
\n Tihais (triplets). While many in the public sphere consider these modern innovations, they are found in the ancient texts. Khayal has been studied extensively by Wade<\/a> (1984<\/a>) and Raja<\/a> (2009<\/a>). <\/div>\n
\n the description of deities, the praise of God through emphasis on N\u0101m-K\u012brtan, or simply the human longing for the Almighty. Many Khayal songs depict situations involving the god Krishna and his favorite goddess R\u0101dh\u0101, sometimes in the context
\n of the seasons such as spring and monsoon, while other songs reveal Indian spiritual wisdom such as found in the Upanishads, including the illusory nature of material existence, the misery associated with greed and gluttony, the prospect of repeated
\n births in the cycle of Sams\u0101ra or rebirth, and the need for assistance in crossing over to the other side, a place of permanent peace and tranquility. The solution to these problems is often presented in the songs themselves: chanting divine names,
\n meditation on the Lord, and engaging in devotional worship.<\/div>\n
\n establish continuity between the ancient and medieval traditions of Indian philosophy and devotion and the classical music of today. They are placed in one of four categories: (1) philosophical teachings, (2) praise of God, (3) descriptions of
\n the divine pastimes, and (4) prescriptions of chanting divine names. The compositions are rendered in the rhythm of Tintal (sixteen beats). The lyrics and notations are published in the standard songbooks of Khayal (noted at the end of this subsection).
\n The weblinks are given for the audio of each song, with three links to video performances.<\/div>\n
\n life and the next. This composition in R\u0101ga Yaman reinforces the principle that music is directly connected to the notion of N\u0101da-Brahman or sacred sound. The lyrics contain the standard reference to N\u0101da as divided into An\u0101hata (unstruck sound)
\n and \u0100hata (struck sound) and as being the source or fountainhead of the Svaras or musical notes, which are sung in this composition as part of the lyrics with reference to parts of the body and the 22 microtones. <\/div>\n
\n meditated on the An\u0101hata dimensi\u00f3n of N\u0101da-Brahman, being in touch with Divine Truth. The seven notes of music, Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni, are described as spread over three octaves, lower (Mandra), middle (Madhya), and higher (T\u0101ra), which correspond
\n to the three levels of the body; navel, throat, and head.<\/div>\n
\n M\u0101y\u0101. One needs to recognize the futility of material possessions and family attachments, and earnestly try to cross-over to the other side of existence as the only remedy for permanent relief from countless rebirths in this material world. <\/div>\n
\n come to you and say it is time to go–will you be ready? One must concentrate on the Lord to avoid dire results at the time of death.<\/div>\n
\n range of names or epithets, such as Prabhu (\u201cLord\u201d), Satt\u0101r (\u201cDivine Truth\u201d), Karat\u0101r (\u201cCreator\u201d), D\u0101t\u0101 (\u201cDivine Giver\u201d), who is offered prayer and a petition for liberation. The next three compositions express this notion fully. The first
\n two are in R\u0101ga Bhairav, an early morning R\u0101ga for solemn meditation, and the third one in R\u0101ga Kafi is for the daytime hours especially in the afternoon. <\/div>\n
\n Guru.<\/div>\n
\n poet Catur says \u201cPlease carry me across to the other side.\u201d<\/div>\n
\n focus attention on a specific deity. Two examples are given. The first example is a song in R\u0101ga Bihag that describes Krishna playing his flute by the side of the Yamun\u0101 River in his hometown of Vrind\u0101van. The second song in R\u0101ga Yaman-Kalyan
\n is a hymn to \u015aiva requesting him to reveal himself to the sincere devotee. <\/div>\n
\n in Braj, and pleased the wives of the N\u0101gas while defeating the demon Kaliya.<\/div>\n
\n of the divine name of God, most especially R\u0101ma, as in \u2018R\u0101m N\u0101m,\u2019 or Vishnu or Krishna as in \u2018Hari N\u0101m.\u2019 <\/div>\n
\n eyes enchant.<\/div>\n 7. Conclusions<\/h2>\n
\n ritual and temple settings over recent decades. Modern scholarship has also noted that despite differences in theology or philosophy among Hindu sects, a common factor in all these is the experience of vocal chant and music. Religious leaders
\n widely consider devotional songs to be essential for the propagation of their faiths in order to make them more attractive, and though there may be differences in the content of the lyrics, there is no distinction in principle in the style of
\n singing or performance. There are thousands of compositions that reflect this ideal among a diversity of sectarian traditions. The same R\u0101ga or T\u0101la may be employed in songs that express love and devotion to Vishnu, Krishna, \u015aiva, the Goddess,
\n or any deity. The vernacular classical songs of Khayal are an excellent focal point for the study of sacred music in Hindu religious experience because they encompass the entire range of Hindu philosophical and emotional content, reaching back
\n to the ancient Sanskrit texts, as well as the diverse experiences of worship and reflection in the modern world. The beauty and depth of Indian classical music is also evident in the number of non-Hindu traditions that have absorbed it into their
\n own worship experiences. There are Indian classical songs set to R\u0101gas and T\u0101las in Sikhism, in Sufi Islam, in Buddhism and Jainism, and among Indian Christians. As such, the universal experiences of love, surrender, and compassion are beautifully
\n expressed and experienced through the medium of Indian classical music. <\/div>\n
\n in India: \u201cIf it is granted that the concept of the Absolute as sound is true and that music is a possible way to the final Reality, it would follow that the musician must cultivate sound in all its aspects and infinite variety.\u201d And the question
\n of the spirituality of Indian music remains in the affirmative (ibid., p. 437): \u201cIn the theory and contemporary practice of traditional Indian music itself there is ample room to perceive one\u2019s concern and involvement with the art such that it
\n becomes a definite help to spiritual growth.\u201d<\/div>\n<\/section>\n<\/div>\nFunding<\/h2>\n
Conflicts of Interest<\/h2>\n
References<\/h2>\n